Paleoparasitology: the origin of human parasites / Paleoparasitologia: a origem dos parasitas humanos

Parasitism is composed by three subsystems: the parasite, the host, and the environment. There are no organisms that cannot be parasitized. The relationship between a parasite and its host species most of the time do not result in damage or disease to the host. However, in a parasitic disease the presence of a given parasite is always necessary, at least in a given moment of the infection. Some parasite species that infect humans were inherited from pre-hominids, and were shared with other phylogenetically close host species, but other parasite species were acquired from the environment as humans evolved. Human migration spread inherited parasites throughout the globe. To recover and trace the origin and evolution of infectious diseases, paleoparasitology was created. Paleoparasitology is the study of parasites in ancient material, which provided new information on the evolution, paleoepidemiology, ecology and phylogenetics of infectious diseases.

O parasitismo é composto por três subsistemas: o parasito, o hospedeiro e meio ambiente. Não existe organismo que não possa ser parasitado. A relação entre um parasito e suas espécies de hospedeiro não resulta, na maior parte das vezes, em dano ou doença ao hospedeiro. Entretanto, numa doença parasitária, a presença de um determinado parasito é sempre necessária, pelo menos em um determinado momento da infecção. Algumas espécies de parasitos que infectam humanos foram herdados dos pré-hominídeos, e foram compartilhados com outras espécies de hospedeiro filogeneticamente próximas, mas outras espécies foram adquiridas pelo meio ambiente à medida que os humanos se desenvolveram. As migrações humanas espalharam os parasitos adquiridos por todo o mundo. Para recuperar e traçar a origem e evolução das doenças infecciosas foi criada a paleoparasitologia. Paleoparasitologia é o estudo dos parasitos em materiais antigos, que trouxe novas informações na evolução, paleoepidemiologia, ecologia e filogenética das doenças infecciosas.

Fundamentos da paleoparasitologia / Fundamentals of paleoparasitology

A obra está dividida em quatro partes - Os Parasitos, Hospedeiros Humanos e o Ambiente; Vestígios de Parasitos Preservados em Diversos Materiais, Técnicas de Microscopia e Diagnóstico Molecular; O Encontro de Parasitos em Material Antigo: uma visão paleogeográfica; e Estudos Especiais e Perspectivas. Assinado por autores de vários países, como Argentina, Estados Unidos, Alemanha e França, o livro tem capítulos dedicados às descobertas da paleoparasitologia em todos os continentes.

Fundamentos da paleoparasitologia

Iniciativa inédita no mundo, o livro compila o conhecimento disponível sobre o assunto e apresenta o estado da arte em paleoparasitologia – termo cunhado há cerca de 30 anos por um brasileiro, o pesquisador da Fiocruz Luiz Fernando Ferreira, pioneiro dessa ciência voltada para o estudo dos parasitos no passado. Multidisciplinar por essência, a paleoparasitologia reúne contribuições de cientistas sociais, biólogos, historiadores, arqueólogos, farmacêuticos, médicos e tantos outros profissionais, sejam da área biomédica ou das humanidades. Com aplicações variadas, como nos estudos evolutivos ou das migrações, seus resultados, muitas vezes, dependem da associação entre os achados de laboratório e os vestígios culturais. A obra está dividida em quatro partes - Os Parasitos, Hospedeiros Humanos e o Ambiente; Vestígios de Parasitos Preservados em Diversos Materiais, Técnicas de Microscopia e Diagnóstico Molecular; O Encontro de Parasitos em Material Antigo: uma visão paleogeográfica; e Estudos Especiais e Perspectivas. Assinado por autores de vários países, como Argentina, Estados Unidos, Alemanha e França, o livro tem capítulos dedicados às descobertas da paleoparasitologia em todos os continentes

Possible influence of the ENSO phenomenon on the pathoecology of diphyllobothriasis and anisakiasis in ancient Chinchorro populations

Current clinical data show a clear relationship between the zoonosis rates of Diphyllobothrium pacificum and Anisakis caused by the El Niño Southern Oscillations (ENSO) phenomenon along the Chilean coast. These parasites are endemic to the region and have a specific habitat distribution. D. pacificum prefers the warmer waters in the northern coast, while Anisakis prefers the colder waters of Southern Chile. The ENSO phenomenon causes a drastic inversion in the seawater temperatures in this region, modifying both the cool nutrient-rich seawater and the local ecology. This causes a latitudinal shift in marine parasite distribution and prevalence, as well as drastic environmental changes. The abundance of human mummies and archaeological coastal sites in the Atacama Desert provides an excellent model to test the ENSO impact on antiquity. We review the clinical and archaeological literature debating to what extent these parasites affected the health of the Chinchorros, the earliest settlers of this region. We hypothesise the Chinchorro and their descendants were affected by this natural and cyclical ENSO phenomenon and should therefore present fluctuating rates of D. pacificum and Anisakis infestations.

Paleoparasitology of Chagas disease: a review

One hundred years since the discovery of Chagas disease associated with Trypanosoma cruzi infection, growing attention has focused on understanding the evolution in parasite-human host interaction. This interest has featured studies and results from paleoparasitology, not only the description of lesions in mummified bodies, but also the recovery of genetic material from the parasite and the possibility of analyzing such material over time. The present study reviews the evidence of Chagas disease in organic remains excavated from archeological sites and discusses two findings in greater detail, both with lesions suggestive of chagasic megacolon and confirmed by molecular biology techniques. One of these sites is located in the United States, on the border between Texas and Mexico and the other in state of Minas Gerais, in the Brazilian cerrado (savannah). Dated prior to contact with Europeans, these results confirm that Chagas disease affected prehistoric human groups in other regions outside the Andean altiplanos and other transmission areas on the Pacific Coast, previously considered the origin of T. cruzi infection in the human host.

Animal helminths in human archaeological remains: a review of zoonoses in the past: [revision] / Helmintos animais em vestígios arqueológicos humanos: revisão de zoonoses no passado: [revisão]

The authors present a review of records of intestinal parasitic helminths from animals in human archaeological remains, reported since the emergence of paleopathological studies. The objective was to relate paleoparasitological findings to geographic, biotic, and abiotic factors from the environment in which the prehistoric populations lived, and understand some aspects related to the process of human dispersion and biological and cultural evolution. Modification of eating habits and the incorporation of new cultural practices are analyzed from the perspective of zoonoses from prehistory to the present day, especially in Brazilian indigenous populations. Three tables identifying the helminths, their natural hosts, dates, and sites of archaeological findings complete this review. In conclusion, various zoonoses known today have occurred since antiquity, and these data, combined with studies on the emergence and reemergence of diseases, could make possible to compose scenarios for the future.

São revistos os registros de ocorrência de helmintos intestinais parasitos de animais em vestígios arqueológicos humanos, relatados desde o surgimento dos estudos paleopatológicos. Busca-se relacionar os achados em paleoparasitologia com fatores geográficos, bióticos e abióticos do ambiente em que as populações pré-históricas viviam, e com aspectos do processo de dispersão e evolução biológica e cultural humana. A modificação de hábitos alimentares e a incorporação de novas práticas culturais são analisadas sob o ponto de vista das zoonoses desde a pré-história até a atualidade, em especial em populações indígenas brasileiras. Três tabelas identificando os helmintos, seus hospedeiros naturais, datações e local dos achados arqueológicos complementam esta revisão. Conclui-se que várias zoonoses conhecidas hoje ocorrem desde a antiguidade e que estes dados, combinados a estudos de emergência e reemergência de doenças, podem auxiliar a compor cenários para o futuro.

Parasitism, the diversity of life, and paleoparasitology

The parasite-host-environment system is dynamic, with several points of equilibrium. This makes it difficult to trace the thresholds between benefit and damage, and therefore, the definitions of commensalism, mutualism, and symbiosis become worthless. Therefore, the same concept of parasitism may encompass commensalism, mutualism, and symbiosis. Parasitism is essential for life. Life emerged as a consequence of parasitism at the molecular level, and intracellular parasitism created evolutive events that allowed species to diversify. An ecological and evolutive approach to the study of parasitism is presented here. Studies of the origin and evolution of parasitism have new perspectives with the development of molecular paleoparasitology, by which ancient parasite and host genomes can be recovered from disappeared populations. Molecular paleoparasitology points to host-parasite co-evolutive mechanisms of evolution traceable through genome retrospective studies

Parasite remains in archaeological sites

Organic remains can be found in many different environments. They are the most significant source for paleoparasitological studies as well as for other paleoecological reconstruction. Preserved paleoparasitological remains are found from the driest to the moistest conditions. They help us to understand past and present diseases and therefore contribute to understanding the evolution of present human sociality, biology, and behavior. In this paper, the scope of the surviving evidence will be briefly surveyed, and the great variety of ways it has been preserved in different environments will be discussed. This is done to develop to the most appropriated techniques to recover remaining parasites. Different techniques applied to the study of paleoparasitological remains, preserved in different environments, are presented. The most common materials used to analyze prehistoric human groups are reviewed, and their potential for reconstructing ancient environment and disease are emphasized. This paper also urges increased cooperation among archaeologists, paleontologists, and paleoparasitologists

Enterobius vermicularis: ancient DNA from north and south American human coprolites

A molecular paleoparasitological diagnostic approach was developed for Enterobius vermicularis. Ancient DNA was extracted from 27 coprolites from archaeological sites in Chile and USA. Enzymatic amplification of human mtDNA sequences confirmed the human origin. We designed primers specific to the E. vermicularis 5S ribosomal RNA spacer region and they allowed reproducible polymerase chain reaction identification of ancient material. We suggested that the paleoparasitological microscopic identification could accompany molecular diagnosis, which also opens the possibility of sequence analysis to understand parasite-host evolution

Inca expansion and parasitism in the Lluta Valley: preliminary data

Assessing the impact of cultural change on parasitism has been a central goal in archaeoparasitology. The influence of civilization and the development of empires on parasitism has not been evaluated. Presented here is a preliminary analysis of the change in human parasitism associated with the Inca conquest of the Lluta Valley in Northern Chile. Changes in parasite prevalence are described. It can be seen that the change in life imposed on the inhabitants of the Lluta Valley by the Incas caused an increase in parasitism

A case of megacolon in Rio Grande Valley as a possible case of Chagas disease

We have been searching for evidence of Chagas disease in mummified human remains. Specifically, we have looked for evidence of alteration of intestinal or fecal morphology consistent with megacolon, a condition associated with Chagas disease. One prehistoric individual recovered from the Chihuahuan Desert near the Rio Grande exhibits such pathology. We present documentation of this case. We are certain that this individual presents a profoundly altered large intestinal tract and we suggest that further research should focus on confirmation of a diagnosis of Chagas disease. We propose that the prehistoric activity and dietary patterns in Chihuahua Desert hunter/gatherers promoted the pathoecology of Chagas disease

Louse infestation of the Chiribaya Culture, Southern Peru: variation in prevalence by age and sex

In order to improve the interpretive potential of archaeoparasitology, it is important to demonstrate that the epidemiology of ancient parasites is comparable to that of modern parasites. Once this is demonstrated, then we can be secure that the evidence of ancient parasitism truly reflects the pathoecology of parasitic disease. Presented here is an analysis of the paleoepidemiology of Pediculus humanus infestation from 146 mummies from the Chiribaya culture 1000-1250 AD of Southern Peru. The study demonstrates the modern parasitological axiom that 10 percent of the population harbors 70 percent of the parasites holds true for ancient louse infestation. This is the first demonstration of the paleoepidemiology of prehistoric lice infestation

Diagnosing ancient Diphyllobothriasis from Chinchorro mummies

Diphyllobothrium pacificum has been reported as a human parasite from coprolites and skeletons in Peru and Chile. Our analysis of Chinchorro mummies from Chile provides the oldest evidence of D. pacificum directly associated with human mummies. These mummies date between 4,000 and 5,000 years ago. The basis for our diagnosis is presented. We find that the size of the eggs in the mummies is smaller than other discoveries of D. pacificum. We suggest that this is due to the peculiar circumstances of preservation of parasite eggs within mummies and the release of immature eggs into the intestinal tract as the tapeworms decompose after the death of the host. This information is important to consider when making diagnoses from mummies

Pathoecology of Chiribaya parasitism

The excavations of Chiribaya culture sites in the Osmore drainage of southern Peru focused on the recovery of information about prehistoric disease, including parasitism. The archaeologists excavated human, dog, guinea pig, and llama mummies. These mummies were analyzed for internal and external parasites. The results of the analysis and reconstruction of prehistoric life from the excavations allows us to interpret the pathoecology of the Chiribaya culture